Wednesday, January 9, 2008
रोबोट: an intelligent machine............
Robot, which is derived from a Czech word meaning "menial labor," got its modern meaning from a 1920 play, R.U.R. (Rossum's Universal Robots), by Czech playwright Karel Capek (1890-1938). The robots in Capek's play develop emotions and overthrow their human masters. A sinister "power struggle" with robots has long been a popular theme in science fiction --- for a change of pace, try Isaac Asimov's "I Robot" stories in which he consciously strove to depict robots as a benefit to society. Today, robots are used in many ways, from lawn mowing to auto manufacturing. Scientists see practical uses for robots in performing socially undesirable, hazardous or even "impossible" tasks --- trash collection, toxic waste clean-up, desert and space exploration, and more. AI researchers are also interested in robots as a way to understand human (and not just human) intelligence in its primary function -- interacting with the real world.
Tuesday, January 8, 2008
The Computer Memory.................
The computer memory is just like that of human brain. A small brain has little capacity to store information. A computer will low memory cannot be fast. It is slow to process information and it is fast to have any breakdown (hang) anytime. The computer must often be upgraded so that it can performed its optimum function, to serve us better and be our handy companion.
I am waiting for the computer show to start, urgently wanted to buy extra disk space for my computer. My computer is running low in its memory space. I cannot log in to Second Life with all my other browser on, otherwise my system will hang and I often get crashed at Second Life. I have been shopping for storage space for my computer since two weeks ago. I had seen a portable hard disk which I like, but I want to wait for the computer show to start — perhaps I can get some good deal there. MemoryStore provides IBM memory as well as many other computer upgrades. I have browse through what they have for my computer, but I am not a person who would rush into buying anything. I need to compare and take some time to look around for more choices. However, if you need compute memory solutions or your computer needs upgrade, why not take some time to learn something from MemoryStore?
I am waiting for the computer show to start, urgently wanted to buy extra disk space for my computer. My computer is running low in its memory space. I cannot log in to Second Life with all my other browser on, otherwise my system will hang and I often get crashed at Second Life. I have been shopping for storage space for my computer since two weeks ago. I had seen a portable hard disk which I like, but I want to wait for the computer show to start — perhaps I can get some good deal there. MemoryStore provides IBM memory as well as many other computer upgrades. I have browse through what they have for my computer, but I am not a person who would rush into buying anything. I need to compare and take some time to look around for more choices. However, if you need compute memory solutions or your computer needs upgrade, why not take some time to learn something from MemoryStore?
Sunday, January 6, 2008
Applications of AI
Here are some useful applications of AI.............
Game Playing
You can buy machines that can play master level chess for a few hundred dollars. There is some AI in them, but they play well against people mainly through brute force computation--looking at hundreds of thousands of positions. To beat a world champion by brute force and known reliable heuristics requires being able to look at 200 million positions per second.
Speech Recognition
In the 1990s, computer speech recognition reached a practical level for limited purposes. Thus United Airlines has replaced its keyboard tree for flight information by a system using speech recognition of flight numbers and city names. It is quite convenient. On the the other hand, while it is possible to instruct some computers using speech, most users have gone back to the keyboard and the mouse as still more convenient.
Understanding Natural Language
Just getting a sequence of words into a computer is not enough. Parsing sentences is not enough either. The computer has to be provided with an understanding of the domain the text is about, and this is presently possible only for very limited domains.
Computer Vision
The world is composed of three-dimensional objects, but the inputs to the human eye and computers' TV cameras are two dimensional. Some useful programs can work solely in two dimensions, but full computer vision requires partial three-dimensional information that is not just a set of two-dimensional views. At present there are only limited ways of representing three-dimensional information directly, and they are not as good as what humans evidently use.
Expert Systems
A ``knowledge engineer'' interviews experts in a certain domain and tries to embody their knowledge in a computer program for carrying out some task. How well this works depends on whether the intellectual mechanisms required for the task are within the present state of AI. When this turned out not to be so, there were many disappointing results. One of the first expert systems was MYCIN in 1974, which diagnosed bacterial infections of the blood and suggested treatments. It did better than medical students or practicing doctors, provided its limitations were observed. Namely, its ontology included bacteria, symptoms, and treatments and did not include patients, doctors, hospitals, death, recovery, and events occurring in time. Its interactions depended on a single patient being considered. Since the experts consulted by the knowledge engineers knew about patients, doctors, death, recovery, etc., it is clear that the knowledge engineers forced what the experts told them into a predetermined framework. In the present state of AI, this has to be true. The usefulness of current expert systems depends on their users having common sense.
Heuristic Classification
One of the most feasible kinds of expert system given the present knowledge of AI is to put some information in one of a fixed set of categories using several sources of information. An example is advising whether to accept a proposed credit card purchase. Information is available about the owner of the credit card, his record of payment and also about the item he is buying and about the establishment from which he is buying it (e.g., about whether there have been previous credit card frauds at this establishment).
Game Playing
You can buy machines that can play master level chess for a few hundred dollars. There is some AI in them, but they play well against people mainly through brute force computation--looking at hundreds of thousands of positions. To beat a world champion by brute force and known reliable heuristics requires being able to look at 200 million positions per second.
Speech Recognition
In the 1990s, computer speech recognition reached a practical level for limited purposes. Thus United Airlines has replaced its keyboard tree for flight information by a system using speech recognition of flight numbers and city names. It is quite convenient. On the the other hand, while it is possible to instruct some computers using speech, most users have gone back to the keyboard and the mouse as still more convenient.
Understanding Natural Language
Just getting a sequence of words into a computer is not enough. Parsing sentences is not enough either. The computer has to be provided with an understanding of the domain the text is about, and this is presently possible only for very limited domains.
Computer Vision
The world is composed of three-dimensional objects, but the inputs to the human eye and computers' TV cameras are two dimensional. Some useful programs can work solely in two dimensions, but full computer vision requires partial three-dimensional information that is not just a set of two-dimensional views. At present there are only limited ways of representing three-dimensional information directly, and they are not as good as what humans evidently use.
Expert Systems
A ``knowledge engineer'' interviews experts in a certain domain and tries to embody their knowledge in a computer program for carrying out some task. How well this works depends on whether the intellectual mechanisms required for the task are within the present state of AI. When this turned out not to be so, there were many disappointing results. One of the first expert systems was MYCIN in 1974, which diagnosed bacterial infections of the blood and suggested treatments. It did better than medical students or practicing doctors, provided its limitations were observed. Namely, its ontology included bacteria, symptoms, and treatments and did not include patients, doctors, hospitals, death, recovery, and events occurring in time. Its interactions depended on a single patient being considered. Since the experts consulted by the knowledge engineers knew about patients, doctors, death, recovery, etc., it is clear that the knowledge engineers forced what the experts told them into a predetermined framework. In the present state of AI, this has to be true. The usefulness of current expert systems depends on their users having common sense.
Heuristic Classification
One of the most feasible kinds of expert system given the present knowledge of AI is to put some information in one of a fixed set of categories using several sources of information. An example is advising whether to accept a proposed credit card purchase. Information is available about the owner of the credit card, his record of payment and also about the item he is buying and about the establishment from which he is buying it (e.g., about whether there have been previous credit card frauds at this establishment).
Artificial Intelligence: The Technology of Modern Era
Artificial intelligence is the science and engineering of making intelligent machines, especially intelligent computer programs. It is related to the similar task of using computers to understand human intelligence, but AI does not have to confine itself to methods that are biologically observable. Intelligence is the computational part of the ability to achieve goals in the world.
Computer programs have plenty of speed and memory but their abilities correspond to the intellectual mechanisms that program designers understand well enough to put in programs. Some abilities that children normally don't develop till they are teenagers may be in, and some abilities possessed by two year olds are still out. The matter is further complicated by the fact that the cognitive sciences still have not succeeded in determining exactly what the human abilities are. Very likely the organization of the intellectual mechanisms for AI can usefully be different from that in people.
The list of some branches of Artificial Intelligence is following: -
Logical AI
What a program knows about the world in general the facts of the specific situation in which it must act, and its goals are all represented by sentences of some mathematical logical language.
Search
AI programs often examine large numbers of possibilities, e.g. moves in a chess game or inferences by a theorem proving program. Discoveries are continually made about how to do this more efficiently in various domains.
Pattern recognition
When a program makes observations of some kind, it is often programmed to compare what it sees with a pattern. For example, a vision program may try to match a pattern of eyes and a nose in a scene in order to find a face.
Representation
Facts about the world have to be represented in some way. Usually languages of mathematical logic are used.
Inference
From some facts, others can be inferred. Mathematical logical deduction is adequate for some purposes, but new methods of non-monotonic inference have been added to logic since the 1970s.
Common sense knowledge and reasoning
This is the area in which AI is farthest from human-level, in spite of the fact that it has been an active research area since the 1950s. While there has been considerable progress, e.g. in developing systems of non-monotonic reasoning and theories of action, yet more new ideas are needed.
Learning from experience
Programs do that. The approaches to AI based on connectionism and neural nets specialize in that. There is also learning of laws expressed in logic.
Planning
Planning programs start with general facts about the world (especially facts about the effects of actions), facts about the particular situation and a statement of a goal. From these, they generate a strategy for achieving the goal.
Epistemology
This is a study of the kinds of knowledge that are required for solving problems in the world.
Ontology
Ontology is the study of the kinds of things that exist. In AI, the programs and sentences deal with various kinds of objects, and we study what these kinds are and what their basic properties are.
Heuristics
A heuristic is a way of trying to discover something or an idea imbedded in a program. The term is used variously in AI. Heuristic predicates that compare two nodes in a search tree to see if one is better than the other, i.e. constitutes an advance toward the goal, may be more useful.
Genetic programming
Genetic programming is a technique for getting programs to solve a task by mating random Lisp programs and selecting fittest in millions of generations.
The ultimate effort is to make computer programs that can solve problems and achieve goals in the world as well as humans. However, many people involved in particular research areas are much less ambitious.
Computer programs have plenty of speed and memory but their abilities correspond to the intellectual mechanisms that program designers understand well enough to put in programs. Some abilities that children normally don't develop till they are teenagers may be in, and some abilities possessed by two year olds are still out. The matter is further complicated by the fact that the cognitive sciences still have not succeeded in determining exactly what the human abilities are. Very likely the organization of the intellectual mechanisms for AI can usefully be different from that in people.
The list of some branches of Artificial Intelligence is following: -
Logical AI
What a program knows about the world in general the facts of the specific situation in which it must act, and its goals are all represented by sentences of some mathematical logical language.
Search
AI programs often examine large numbers of possibilities, e.g. moves in a chess game or inferences by a theorem proving program. Discoveries are continually made about how to do this more efficiently in various domains.
Pattern recognition
When a program makes observations of some kind, it is often programmed to compare what it sees with a pattern. For example, a vision program may try to match a pattern of eyes and a nose in a scene in order to find a face.
Representation
Facts about the world have to be represented in some way. Usually languages of mathematical logic are used.
Inference
From some facts, others can be inferred. Mathematical logical deduction is adequate for some purposes, but new methods of non-monotonic inference have been added to logic since the 1970s.
Common sense knowledge and reasoning
This is the area in which AI is farthest from human-level, in spite of the fact that it has been an active research area since the 1950s. While there has been considerable progress, e.g. in developing systems of non-monotonic reasoning and theories of action, yet more new ideas are needed.
Learning from experience
Programs do that. The approaches to AI based on connectionism and neural nets specialize in that. There is also learning of laws expressed in logic.
Planning
Planning programs start with general facts about the world (especially facts about the effects of actions), facts about the particular situation and a statement of a goal. From these, they generate a strategy for achieving the goal.
Epistemology
This is a study of the kinds of knowledge that are required for solving problems in the world.
Ontology
Ontology is the study of the kinds of things that exist. In AI, the programs and sentences deal with various kinds of objects, and we study what these kinds are and what their basic properties are.
Heuristics
A heuristic is a way of trying to discover something or an idea imbedded in a program. The term is used variously in AI. Heuristic predicates that compare two nodes in a search tree to see if one is better than the other, i.e. constitutes an advance toward the goal, may be more useful.
Genetic programming
Genetic programming is a technique for getting programs to solve a task by mating random Lisp programs and selecting fittest in millions of generations.
The ultimate effort is to make computer programs that can solve problems and achieve goals in the world as well as humans. However, many people involved in particular research areas are much less ambitious.
Sim Card Recovery
Sim Card Recovery
6th January 2008
Recover Deleted Files has announced Sim card recovery software that is capable to recovers all your lost or deleted important phone numbers from corrupted sim card. Utility supports all sim readers of any manufacturer like, LG-SIMCR-001, GF-CR05, GF-SCB-601, all in one, Tinpec Super Mini Micro SD/T-Flash, internal, Datopal Micro SD/T-F Dekart, ACR38T, ACR38DT, All-In-1, Mobile Express, GT-SCB-04, Tf, GT-CR-003, M-SIM, Backup Device LG-SBD-002 DualKey, Imono USB 2.0 SD, ESR4618, ACT30, Contactless Smart card reader/writer etc. This backup machine rescue all your read or unread SMS from the inbox or outbox folders. This restoration device restores sim card SPN service provider name and identification number (ICC-ID). SIM card editor PC/SC compliant smart card data protector get back all your recent call history like missed calls, dialed calls and received calls which is very helpful in all forensics or investigation labs like FBI, CBI etc.
Extraction application supports all sim cards of any company like Orascom, Vodafone, Orange, Telefonica, Turkcell etc. Protector utility works only when sim card is not blocked and doesn’t require any PUK or PIN number. Application comes with easy to use graphical user interface (GUI) that supports all windows operating systems. You can retrieve all your contacts or messages within a minute with using its inbuilt help option that describes you how to recoup important contents from corrupted sim card.
Important Features:
* Requires a phoenix type sim reader and any windows operating system.
* Display all your recovered data in computer or laptop screen.
* Supports all type of sim card readers.
* This read only and non destructive tool helps many forensics organizations worldwide.
* Capable to read sim card of any country of any network.
* Uses an advanced algorithm for content recovery.
Company Details:
Company Name: Recover Deleted Files
Company URL: http://www.pdd.co.in
Download URL: http://www.pdd.co.in/downloads/sim-card.exe
6th January 2008
Recover Deleted Files has announced Sim card recovery software that is capable to recovers all your lost or deleted important phone numbers from corrupted sim card. Utility supports all sim readers of any manufacturer like, LG-SIMCR-001, GF-CR05, GF-SCB-601, all in one, Tinpec Super Mini Micro SD/T-Flash, internal, Datopal Micro SD/T-F Dekart, ACR38T, ACR38DT, All-In-1, Mobile Express, GT-SCB-04, Tf, GT-CR-003, M-SIM, Backup Device LG-SBD-002 DualKey, Imono USB 2.0 SD, ESR4618, ACT30, Contactless Smart card reader/writer etc. This backup machine rescue all your read or unread SMS from the inbox or outbox folders. This restoration device restores sim card SPN service provider name and identification number (ICC-ID). SIM card editor PC/SC compliant smart card data protector get back all your recent call history like missed calls, dialed calls and received calls which is very helpful in all forensics or investigation labs like FBI, CBI etc.
Extraction application supports all sim cards of any company like Orascom, Vodafone, Orange, Telefonica, Turkcell etc. Protector utility works only when sim card is not blocked and doesn’t require any PUK or PIN number. Application comes with easy to use graphical user interface (GUI) that supports all windows operating systems. You can retrieve all your contacts or messages within a minute with using its inbuilt help option that describes you how to recoup important contents from corrupted sim card.
Important Features:
* Requires a phoenix type sim reader and any windows operating system.
* Display all your recovered data in computer or laptop screen.
* Supports all type of sim card readers.
* This read only and non destructive tool helps many forensics organizations worldwide.
* Capable to read sim card of any country of any network.
* Uses an advanced algorithm for content recovery.
Company Details:
Company Name: Recover Deleted Files
Company URL: http://www.pdd.co.in
Download URL: http://www.pdd.co.in/downloads/sim-card.exe
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